Article

Title: Amphibians and conservation breeding programmes: do all threatened amphibians belong on the ark?

Authors: Tapley, B., Bradfield K.S., Michaels, C., & Bungard, M.

Journal: Biodiversity and Conservation

Year: 2015

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-0966-9

Species or groups: Wyoming toad, Kihansi spray toad, Axolotl, Japanese giant salamander

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871

Abstract: Amphibians are facing an extinction crisis, and conservation breeding programmes are a tool used to prevent imminent species extinctions. Compared to mammals and birds, amphibians are considered ideal candidates for these programmes due to their small body size and low space requirements, high fecundity, applicability of reproductive technologies, short generation time, lack of parental care, hard wired behaviour, low maintenance requirements, relative cost effectiveness of such programmes, the success of several amphibian conservation breeding programmes and because captive husbandry capacity exists. Superficially, these reasons appear sound and conservation breeding has improved the conservation status of several amphibian species, however it is impossible to make generalisations about the biology or geo-political context of an entire class. Many threatened amphibian species fail to meet criteria that are commonly cited as reasons why amphibians are suitable for conservation breeding programmes. There are also limitations associated with maintaining populations of amphibians in the zoo and private sectors, and these could potentially undermine the success of conservation breeding programmes and reintroductions. We recommend that species that have been assessed as high priorities for ex situ conservation action are subsequently individually reassessed to determine their suitability for inclusion in conservation breeding programmes. The limitations and risks of maintaining ex situ populations of amphibians need to be considered from the outset and, where possible, mitigated. This should improve programme success rates and ensure that the limited funds dedicated to ex situ amphibian conservation are allocated to projects which have the greatest chance of success.

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Title: Animal personality and behavioural syndroms in amphibians: a review of evidence, experimental approaches, and implications for conservation.

Authors: Kelleher, S.R., Silla, A.J., & Byrne, P.G.

Journal: Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology

Year: 2018

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-018-2493-7

Species or groups: Frogs, Southern toad, American toad, Natterjack toad, Cane toad, Ouachita Dusky salamander, streamside salamander, small mouth salamander, Bosca's newt

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/870

Abstract: Animal personality and behavioral syndromes can have profound effects on individual fitness. Consequently, there is growing recognition that knowledge of these phenomena may assist with animal conservation. Here we review evidence for personality and behavioral syndromes in amphibians (the most threatened vertebrate class), critique experimental approaches, and explore whether knowledge in this domain might assist with endangered species management. Despite being a neglected field (research has spanned just 24 species), there is emerging evidence that frogs, toads, salamanders, and newts show personality and behavioral syndromes along three behavioral axes: boldness, exploration, and activity. Among vertebrates, amphibians are unique in having a biphasic lifecycle defined by metamorphosis and obvious transformations in morphology, physiology, and habitat use, characteristics that enable detailed examination of behavioral changes across life stages and ecological contexts. Accordingly, recent work has started to make important contributions to our understanding of the development and proximate causes of personality and behavioral syndromes, with some emerging evidence for ontogenetic stability, genetic control, and state-dependent personality. To date, however, no study has considered the conservation implications of personality for amphibians. Drawing on a conceptual framework and empirical literature for all vertebrates, we argue that there is considerable potential for knowledge of animal personality to improve amphibian conservation programs. We propose a novel paradigm to improve (i) the mating and reproductive success of captive animals by ensuring that breeding pairs are behaviorally compatible and (ii) the post-reintroduction survival and reproductive potential of animals by facilitating the selection of optimal behavioral types for release.

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Title: Captive breeding, reintroduction, and the conservation of amphibians

Authors: Griffiths R.A., & Pavajeau L.

Journal: Conservation Biology

Year: 2008

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00967

Species or groups: Toads, salamanders

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871

Abstract: The global amphibian crisis has resulted in renewed interest in captive breeding as a conservation tool for amphibians. Although captive breeding and reintroduction are controversial management actions, amphibians possess a number of attributes that make them potentially good models for such programs. We reviewed the extent and effectiveness of captive breeding and reintroduction programs for amphibians through an analysis of data from the Global Amphibian Assessment and other sources. Most captive breeding and reintroduction programs for amphibians have focused on threatened species from industrialized countries with relatively low amphibian diversity. Out of 110 species in such programs, 52 were in programs with no plans for reintroduction that had conservation research or conservation education as their main purpose. A further 39 species were in programs that entailed captive breeding and reintroduction or combined captive breeding with relocations of wild animals. Nineteen species were in programs with relocations of wild animals only. Eighteen out of 58 reintroduced species have subsequently bred successfully in the wild, and 13 of these species have established self-sustaining populations. As with threatened amphibians generally, amphibians in captive breeding or reintroduction programs face multiple threats, with habitat loss being the most important. Nevertheless, only 18 out of 58 reintroduced species faced threats that are all potentially reversible. When selecting species for captive programs, dilemmas may emerge between choosing species that have a good chance of surviving after reintroduction because their threats are reversible and those that are doomed to extinction in the wild as a result of irreversible threats. Captive breeding and reintroduction programs for amphibians require long-term commitments to ensure success, and different management strategies may be needed for species earmarked for reintroduction and species used for conservation research and education.

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Title: Emerging trends for biobanking amphibian genetic resources: The hope, reality and challenges for the next decade

Authors: Kouba, A.J., Llyod, R.E., Houck, M.L., Silla, A.J., Calatayud, N., Trudeau, V.L., Clulow, J., Molinia, F., Langhorne, C., Vance, C., Arregui, L., Germano, J., Lermen, D., Della Togna, G.

Journal: Biological Conservation

Year: 2013

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2013.03.010

Species or groups: Amphibians

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/876

Abstract: How to conserve our planet’s rapidly disappearing biodiversity is one of the greatest challenges of our generation. Among terrestrial vertebrate taxa, amphibians are most at risk with 41% of all known species experiencing population declines and one-third threatened with extinction. Although many institutions have responded by establishing captive assurance colonies for several critically endangered amphibians, the resources provided by these conservation organizations will not be enough to save all species ‘at risk’ without a multi-pronged approach. Around the world, zoos, aquariums, governments, and conservation NGOs are beginning to establish amphibian gene banks to conserve, in perpetuity, the remaining extant genetic diversity for many of these critically endangered species. A suite of biomaterials has been targeted for cryoconservation including blood, cell cultures, tissues, spermatozoa, eggs, and embryos. Several international workshops on amphibian gene banking and assisted reproductive technologies have been held between 2010 and 2012, bringing together leading experts in the fields of amphibian ecology, physiology, and cryobiology to synthesize emerging trends for biobanking amphibian genetic resources, provide opportunities for collaboration, and discuss future research directions. The following review paper and summary will provide a synopsis of these international workshops, in particular the hopes, realities, and current challenges inherent to this applied research field.

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Title: Applied reproductive technologies and genetic resource banking for amphibian conservation

Authors: Kouba, A.J., & Vance, C.K.

Journal: Reproduction, Fertility and Development

Year: 2009

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/RD09038

Species or groups: Toads, salamanders, newts

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/834; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/835; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/883; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/876; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871

Abstract: As amphibian populations continue to decline, both government and non-government organisations are establishing captive assurance colonies to secure populations deemed at risk of extinction if left in the wild. For the most part, little is known about the nutritional ecology, reproductive biology or husbandry needs of the animals placed into captive breeding programs. Because of this lack of knowledge, conservation biologists are currently facing the difficult task of maintaining and reproducing these species. Academic and zoo scientists are beginning to examine different technologies for maintaining the genetic diversity of founder populations brought out of the wild before the animals become extinct from rapidly spreading epizootic diseases. One such technology is genetic resource banking and applied reproductive technologies for species that are difficult to reproduce reliably in captivity. Significant advances have been made in the last decade for amphibian assisted reproduction including the use of exogenous hormones for induction of spermiation and ovulation, in vitro fertilisation, short-term cold storage of gametes and long-term cryopreservation of spermatozoa. These scientific breakthroughs for a select few species will no doubt serve as models for future assisted breeding protocols and the increasing number of amphibians requiring conservation intervention. However, the development of specialised assisted breeding protocols that can be applied to many different families of amphibians will likely require species-specific modifications considering their wide range of reproductive modes. The purpose of this review is to summarise the current state of knowledge in the area of assisted reproduction technologies and gene banking for the conservation of amphibians.

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Title: Non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology in amphibian conservation physiology

Authors: Narayan, E.J.

Journal: Conservation Physiology

Year: 2013

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/cot011

Species or groups: Toads

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/883; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/876; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/835

Abstract: Non-invasive endocrinology utilizes non-invasive biological samples (such as faeces, urine, hair, aquatic media, and saliva) for the quantification of hormones in wildlife. Urinary-based enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and radio-immunoassay have enabled the rapid quantification of reproductive and stress hormones in amphibians (Anura: Amphibia). With minimal disturbance, these methods can be used to assess the ovarian and testicular endocrine functions as well as physiological stress in captive and free-living populations. Non-invasive endocrine monitoring has therefore greatly advanced our knowledge of the functioning of the stress endocrine system(the hypothalamo–pituitary–interrenalaxis) andthe reproductiveendocrine system (thehypothalamo–pituitary–gonadal axis) in the amphibian physiological stress response, reproductive ecology, health and welfare, and survival. Biological (physiological) validation is necessary for obtaining the excretory lag time of hormone metabolites. Urinary-based EIA for the major reproductive hormones, estradiol and progesterone in females and testosterone in males, can be used to track the reproductive hormone profiles in relationship to reproductive behaviour and environmental data in free-living anurans. Urinary-based corticosterone metabolite EIA can be used to assess the sublethal impacts of biological stressors (such as invasive species and pathogenic diseases) as well as anthropogenic induced environmental stressors (e.g. extreme temperatures) on free-living populations. Noninvasive endocrine methods can also assist in the diagnosis of success or failure of captive breeding programmes by measuring the longitudinal patterns of changes in reproductive hormones and corticosterone within captive anurans and comparing the endocrine profiles with health records and reproductive behaviour. This review paper focuses on the reproductive and the stress endocrinology of anurans and demonstrates the uses of non-invasive endocrinology for advancing amphibian conservation physiology. It also provides key technical considerations for future research that will increase the accuracy and reliability of the data and the value of non-invasive endocrinology within the conceptual framework of conservation physiology.

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Title: Sperm collection and storage for the sustainable manageemnt of amphibian biodiversity

Authors: Browne, R.K., Silla, A.J., Upton, R., Della-Togna, G., Marcec-Greaves, R., Shishova, N.V., Uteshev, V.K., Proaño, B., Pérez, O.D., Mansour, N., Kaurova, S.A., Gakhova, E.N., Cosson, J., Dyzuba, B., Kramarova, L.I., McGinnity, D., Gonzalez, M., Clulow, J., & Clulow, S.

Journal: Theriogenology

Year: 2019

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2019.03.035

Species or groups: Toads, salamanders

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/876

Abstract: Current rates of biodiversity loss pose an unprecedented challenge to the conservation community, particularly with amphibians and freshwater fish as the most threatened vertebrates. An increasing number of environmental challenges, including habitat loss, pathogens, and global warming, demand a global response toward the sustainable management of ecosystems and their biodiversity. Conservation Breeding Programs (CBPs) are needed for the sustainable management of amphibian species threatened with extinction. CBPs support species survival while increasing public awareness and political influence. Current CBPs only cater for 10% of the almost 500 amphibian species in need. However, the use of sperm storage to increase efficiency and reliability, along with an increased number of CBPs, offer the potential to significantly reduce species loss. The establishment and refinement of techniques over the last two decades, for the collection and storage of amphibian spermatozoa, gives confidence for their use in CBPs and other biotechnical applications. Cryopreserved spermatozoa has produced breeding pairs of frogs and salamanders and the stage is set for Lifecycle Proof of Concept Programs that use cryopreserved sperm in CBPs along with repopulation, supplementation, and translocation programs. The application of cryopreserved sperm in CBPs, is complimentary to but separate from archival gene banking and general cell and tissue storage. However, where appropriate amphibian sperm banking should be integrated into other global biobanking projects, especially those for fish, and those that include the use of cryopreserved material for genomics and other research. Research over a broader range of amphibian species, and more uniformity in experimental methodology, is needed to inform both theory and application. Genomics is revolutionising our understanding of biological processes and increasingly guiding species conservation through the identification of evolutionary significant units as the conservation focus, and through revealing the intimate relationship between evolutionary history and sperm physiology that ultimately affects the amenability of sperm to refrigerated or frozen storage. In the present review we provide a nascent phylogenetic framework for integration with other research lines to further the potential of amphibian sperm banking.

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

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Title: The role of reproductive technologies in amphibian conservation breeding programs

Authors: Silla, A.J., & Byrne, P.G.

Journal: Annual Review of Animal Biosciences

Year: 2019

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-animal-020518-115056

Species or groups: Axolotls, frogs, toads, newts

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/835; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/834; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/883; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/876

Abstract: Anthropogenic environmental change has led to unprecedented rates of species extinction, presenting a major threat to global biodiversity. Among vertebrates, amphibians have been most severely impacted, with an estimated 41% of species now threatened with extinction. In response to this biodiversity crisis, a moral and ethical obligation exists to implement proactive interventionist conservation actions to assist species recovery and decelerate declines. Conservation breeding programs have been successfully established for several threatened amphibian species globally, aiming to prevent species’ extinction by maintaining genetically representative assurance colonies ex situ while providing individuals for population augmentation, translocation, and reestablishment in situ. Reproductive technologies have enormous potential to enhance the propagation and genetic management of threatened species. In this review, we discuss the role of reproductive technologies in amphibian conservation breeding programs and summarize technological advancements in amphibian hormone therapies, gamete storage, and artificial fertilization.

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Title: Amphibian Declines in the Twenty-First Century: Why We Need Assisted Reproductive Technologies

Authors: Clulow J., Trudeau V.L., & Kouba A.J.

Journal: NA

Year: 2014

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-0820-2_12

Species or groups: Toads, salamanders, newts

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/876; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/871

Abstract: Each amphibian species is evolutionarily distinct, having developed highly specialized and diverse reproductive strategies in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. These unique reproductive patterns and mechanisms, key to species propagation, have only been explored in a limited number of laboratory models. Although the development of applied reproductive technologies for amphibians has proven useful for a few threatened species, the real benefi t of this technology has been new insights into the reproductive adaptations, behavior, endocrinology, and physiological mechanisms that have evolved over millions of years. As the basic fundamental database on amphibian reproductive physiology has grown, so has the applied benefi t for species conservation. In particular, technologies such as noninvasive fecal and urinary hormone assays, hormone treatments for induced breeding or gamete collection, in vitro fertilization, and the ability to establish genome resource banks have all played important roles in monitoring or managing small populations of captive species. Amphibians have the ability to produce a large excess of germplasm (up to 10,000 ovulated eggs in a single reproductive event) that if not collected and preserved, would represent a wasted valuable resource. We discuss the current state of knowledge in assisted reproductive technologies for amphibians and why their extinction crisis means these available tools can no longer be implemented as small-scale, last-ditch efforts. The reproductive technologies must be established early as a key component of large-scale species recovery

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

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Title: Amphibian conservation: Global evidence for the effects of interventions

Authors: Smith, R.K., & Sutherland, W.J.

Journal: NA

Year: 2014

DOI: NA

Species or groups: Texas blind salamander, Pyrenean mountain salamander, Tennessee cave salamander, Japanese giant salamander, Anderson's salamander, slimy salamander, Mexican axolotl, Great crested newt, Smooth newt, Southern dwarf siren, Chinese giant salamander

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/1896; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/838; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/1897; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/1899; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/874

Abstract: NA

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

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Title: Reintroduction schemes for captive-bred animals

Authors: Razzetti, E., & Scali, S.

Journal: NA

Year: 2009

DOI: NA

Species or groups: Spotted salamander, Tiger salamander

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/838; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/874

Abstract: NA

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

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Title: Ecology and conservation of amphibians

Authors: Beebee, T.J.C.

Journal: NA

Year: 1996

DOI: NA

Species or groups: Houston toad, Majorcan midwife toad, Natterjack toad

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/848

Abstract: NA

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

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Title: Species assessment for Wyoming toad (Bufo baxteri) in Wyoming

Authors: Geraud, M., & Keinath, D.A.

Journal: NA

Year: 2004

DOI: NA

Species or groups: Wyoming Toad

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/848

Abstract: NA

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

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Title: Tadpole nutritional ecology and digestive physiology: Implications for captive rearing of larval anurans

Authors: Pryor, G.S.

Journal: Zoo Biology

Year: 2014

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21152

Species or groups: Oregon spotted frog, Gutteral toad, Common rain frog, Boettger's dainty frog, Natal ghost frog, Marbled reed frog

Other sources of evidence: https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/835; https://www.conservationevidence.com/actions/848

Abstract: The adaptive tadpole stage allows anurans to exploit food resources in two vastly different environments, and the transition from aquatic larvae to terrestrial carnivores is both dramatic and complex. As seen in many other members of the freshwater aquatic community, the nutritional requirements and characteristic feeding strategies of anuran larvae (tadpoles) are extremely diverse, ranging from herbivory to carnivory and including predation and cannibalism, oophagy, coprophagy, filter‐feeding, and hindgut microbial fermentation. Whereas tadpoles as a group are commonly considered herbivorous or omnivorous, many are specialists; understanding species‐specific dietary habits is critical for captive rearing projects in zoos and amphibian habitat conservation efforts. Practical applications of this review also encompass studies of amphibian declines, herpetoculture, ecology and evolution, and comparative gastrointestinal morphology and physiology.

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

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Freshwater Biodiversity Toolbox

Captive Breeding of Amphibians

Tapley, B., Bradfield K.S., Michaels, C., & Bungard, M. (2015)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Kelleher, S.R., Silla, A.J., & Byrne, P.G. (2018)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Griffiths R.A., & Pavajeau L. (2008)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Kouba, A.J., Llyod, R.E., Houck, M.L., Silla, A.J., Calatayud, N., Trudeau, V.L., Clulow, J., Molinia, F., Langhorne, C., Vance, C., Arregui, L., Germano, J., Lermen, D., Della Togna, G. (2013)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Kouba, A.J., & Vance, C.K. (2009)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Narayan, E.J. (2013)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Browne, R.K., Silla, A.J., Upton, R., Della-Togna, G., Marcec-Greaves, R., Shishova, N.V., Uteshev, V.K., Proaño, B., Pérez, O.D., Mansour, N., Kaurova, S.A., Gakhova, E.N., Cosson, J., Dyzuba, B., Kramarova, L.I., McGinnity, D., Gonzalez, M., Clulow, J., & Clulow, S. (2019)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Silla, A.J., & Byrne, P.G. (2019)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Clulow J., Trudeau V.L., & Kouba A.J. (2014)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Smith, R.K., & Sutherland, W.J. (2014)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Razzetti, E., & Scali, S. (2009)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Beebee, T.J.C. (1996)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Geraud, M., & Keinath, D.A. (2004)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

Pryor, G.S. (2014)

Assessment of reliability and robustness (CEESAT)

Assessment of relevance to Canada (RASCAT)

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